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perlguts - Introduction to the Perl API
SV Scalar Value
AV Array Value
HV Hash Value
Each typedef has specific routines that manipulate the various data types.
Perl also uses two special typedefs, I32 and I16, which will always be at least 32-bits and 16-bits long, respectively. (Again, there are U32 and U16, as well.) They will usually be exactly 32 and 16 bits long, but on Crays they will both be 64 bits.
The seven routines are:
SV* newSViv(IV);
SV* newSVuv(UV);
SV* newSVnv(double);
SV* newSVpv(const char*, STRLEN);
SV* newSVpvn(const char*, STRLEN);
SV* newSVpvf(const char*, ...);
SV* newSVsv(SV*);
"STRLEN" is an integer type (Size_t, usually defined as size_t in config.h) guaranteed to be large enough to represent the size of any string that perl can handle.
In the unlikely case of a SV requiring more complex initialisation, you can create an empty SV with newSV(len). If "len" is 0 an empty SV of type NULL is returned, else an SV of type PV is returned with len + 1 (for the NUL) bytes of storage allocated, accessible via SvPVX. In both cases the SV has value undef.
SV *sv = newSV(0); /* no storage allocated */
SV *sv = newSV(10); /* 10 (+1) bytes of uninitialised storage allocated */
To change the value of an already-existing SV, there are eight routines:
void sv_setiv(SV*, IV);
void sv_setuv(SV*, UV);
void sv_setnv(SV*, double);
void sv_setpv(SV*, const char*);
void sv_setpvn(SV*, const char*, STRLEN)
void sv_setpvf(SV*, const char*, ...);
void sv_vsetpvfn(SV*, const char*, STRLEN, va_list *, SV **, I32, bool *);
void sv_setsv(SV*, SV*);
Notice that you can choose to specify the length of the string to be assigned by using "sv_setpvn", "newSVpvn", or "newSVpv", or you may allow Perl to calculate the length by using "sv_setpv" or by specifying 0 as the second argument to "newSVpv". Be warned, though, that Perl will determine the string's length by using "strlen", which depends on the string terminating with a NUL character.
The arguments of "sv_setpvf" are processed like "sprintf", and the formatted output becomes the value.
"sv_vsetpvfn" is an analogue of "vsprintf", but it allows you to specify either a pointer to a variable argument list or the address and length of an array of SVs. The last argument points to a boolean; on return, if that boolean is true, then locale-specific information has been used to format the string, and the string's contents are therefore untrustworthy (see perlsec). This pointer may be NULL if that information is not important. Note that this function requires you to specify the length of the format.
The "sv_set*()" functions are not generic enough to operate on values that have ``magic''. See ``Magic Virtual Tables'' later in this document.
All SVs that contain strings should be terminated with a NUL character. If it is not NUL-terminated there is a risk of core dumps and corruptions from code which passes the string to C functions or system calls which expect a NUL-terminated string. Perl's own functions typically add a trailing NUL for this reason. Nevertheless, you should be very careful when you pass a string stored in an SV to a C function or system call.
To access the actual value that an SV points to, you can use the macros:
SvIV(SV*)
SvUV(SV*)
SvNV(SV*)
SvPV(SV*, STRLEN len)
SvPV_nolen(SV*)
which will automatically coerce the actual scalar type into an IV, UV, double, or string.
In the "SvPV" macro, the length of the string returned is placed into the variable "len" (this is a macro, so you do not use &len). If you do not care what the length of the data is, use the "SvPV_nolen" macro. Historically the "SvPV" macro with the global variable "PL_na" has been used in this case. But that can be quite inefficient because "PL_na" must be accessed in thread-local storage in threaded Perl. In any case, remember that Perl allows arbitrary strings of data that may both contain NULs and might not be terminated by a NUL.
Also remember that C doesn't allow you to safely say "foo(SvPV(s, len), len);". It might work with your compiler, but it won't work for everyone. Break this sort of statement up into separate assignments:
SV *s;
STRLEN len;
char * ptr;
ptr = SvPV(s, len);
foo(ptr, len);
If you want to know if the scalar value is TRUE, you can use:
SvTRUE(SV*)
Although Perl will automatically grow strings for you, if you need to force Perl to allocate more memory for your SV, you can use the macro
SvGROW(SV*, STRLEN newlen)
which will determine if more memory needs to be allocated. If so, it will call the function "sv_grow". Note that "SvGROW" can only increase, not decrease, the allocated memory of an SV and that it does not automatically add a byte for the a trailing NUL (perl's own string functions typically do "SvGROW(sv, len + 1)").
If you have an SV and want to know what kind of data Perl thinks is stored in it, you can use the following macros to check the type of SV you have.
SvIOK(SV*)
SvNOK(SV*)
SvPOK(SV*)
You can get and set the current length of the string stored in an SV with the following macros:
SvCUR(SV*)
SvCUR_set(SV*, I32 val)
You can also get a pointer to the end of the string stored in the SV with the macro:
SvEND(SV*)
But note that these last three macros are valid only if "SvPOK()" is true.
If you want to append something to the end of string stored in an "SV*", you can use the following functions:
void sv_catpv(SV*, const char*);
void sv_catpvn(SV*, const char*, STRLEN);
void sv_catpvf(SV*, const char*, ...);
void sv_vcatpvfn(SV*, const char*, STRLEN, va_list *, SV **, I32, bool);
void sv_catsv(SV*, SV*);
The first function calculates the length of the string to be appended by using "strlen". In the second, you specify the length of the string yourself. The third function processes its arguments like "sprintf" and appends the formatted output. The fourth function works like "vsprintf". You can specify the address and length of an array of SVs instead of the va_list argument. The fifth function extends the string stored in the first SV with the string stored in the second SV. It also forces the second SV to be interpreted as a string.
The "sv_cat*()" functions are not generic enough to operate on values that have ``magic''. See ``Magic Virtual Tables'' later in this document.
If you know the name of a scalar variable, you can get a pointer to its SV by using the following:
SV* get_sv("package::varname", FALSE);
This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
If you want to know if this variable (or any other SV) is actually "defined", you can call:
SvOK(SV*)
The scalar "undef" value is stored in an SV instance called "PL_sv_undef".
Its address can be used whenever an "SV*" is needed. Make sure that you don't try to compare a random sv with &PL_sv_undef. For example when interfacing Perl code, it'll work correctly for:
foo(undef);
But won't work when called as:
$x = undef; foo($x);
So to repeat always use SvOK() to check whether an sv is defined.
Also you have to be careful when using &PL_sv_undef as a value in AVs or HVs (see ``AVs, HVs and undefined values'').
There are also the two values "PL_sv_yes" and "PL_sv_no", which contain boolean TRUE and FALSE values, respectively. Like "PL_sv_undef", their addresses can be used whenever an "SV*" is needed.
Do not be fooled into thinking that "(SV *) 0" is the same as &PL_sv_undef. Take this code:
SV* sv = (SV*) 0;
if (I-am-to-return-a-real-value) {
sv = sv_2mortal(newSViv(42));
}
sv_setsv(ST(0), sv);
This code tries to return a new SV (which contains the value 42) if it should return a real value, or undef otherwise. Instead it has returned a NULL pointer which, somewhere down the line, will cause a segmentation violation, bus error, or just weird results. Change the zero to &PL_sv_undef in the first line and all will be well.
To free an SV that you've created, call "SvREFCNT_dec(SV*)". Normally this call is not necessary (see ``Reference Counts and Mortality'').
Hence, at this point, the start of the buffer that we allocated lives at "SvPVX(sv) - SvIV(sv)" in memory and the PV pointer is pointing into the middle of this allocated storage.
This is best demonstrated by example:
% ./perl -Ilib -MDevel::Peek -le '$a="12345"; $a=~s/.//; Dump($a)'
SV = PVIV(0x8128450) at 0x81340f0
REFCNT = 1
FLAGS = (POK,OOK,pPOK)
IV = 1 (OFFSET)
PV = 0x8135781 ( "1" . ) "2345"\0
CUR = 4
LEN = 5
Here the number of bytes chopped off (1) is put into IV, and "Devel::Peek::Dump" helpfully reminds us that this is an offset. The portion of the string between the ``real'' and the ``fake'' beginnings is shown in parentheses, and the values of "SvCUR" and "SvLEN" reflect the fake beginning, not the real one.
Something similar to the offset hack is performed on AVs to enable efficient shifting and splicing off the beginning of the array; while "AvARRAY" points to the first element in the array that is visible from Perl, "AvALLOC" points to the real start of the C array. These are usually the same, but a "shift" operation can be carried out by increasing "AvARRAY" by one and decreasing "AvFILL" and "AvLEN". Again, the location of the real start of the C array only comes into play when freeing the array. See "av_shift" in av.c.
If you really need to know if you have an integer, double, or string pointer in an SV, you can use the following three macros instead:
SvIOKp(SV*)
SvNOKp(SV*)
SvPOKp(SV*)
These will tell you if you truly have an integer, double, or string pointer stored in your SV. The ``p'' stands for private.
The are various ways in which the private and public flags may differ. For example, a tied SV may have a valid underlying value in the IV slot (so SvIOKp is true), but the data should be accessed via the FETCH routine rather than directly, so SvIOK is false. Another is when numeric conversion has occurred and precision has been lost: only the private flag is set on 'lossy' values. So when an NV is converted to an IV with loss, SvIOKp, SvNOKp and SvNOK will be set, while SvIOK wont be.
In general, though, it's best to use the "Sv*V" macros.
AV* newAV();
The second method both creates the AV and initially populates it with SVs:
AV* av_make(I32 num, SV **ptr);
The second argument points to an array containing "num" "SV*"'s. Once the AV has been created, the SVs can be destroyed, if so desired.
Once the AV has been created, the following operations are possible on AVs:
void av_push(AV*, SV*);
SV* av_pop(AV*);
SV* av_shift(AV*);
void av_unshift(AV*, I32 num);
These should be familiar operations, with the exception of "av_unshift". This routine adds "num" elements at the front of the array with the "undef" value. You must then use "av_store" (described below) to assign values to these new elements.
Here are some other functions:
I32 av_len(AV*);
SV** av_fetch(AV*, I32 key, I32 lval);
SV** av_store(AV*, I32 key, SV* val);
The "av_len" function returns the highest index value in array (just like $#array in Perl). If the array is empty, -1 is returned. The "av_fetch" function returns the value at index "key", but if "lval" is non-zero, then "av_fetch" will store an undef value at that index. The "av_store" function stores the value "val" at index "key", and does not increment the reference count of "val". Thus the caller is responsible for taking care of that, and if "av_store" returns NULL, the caller will have to decrement the reference count to avoid a memory leak. Note that "av_fetch" and "av_store" both return "SV**"'s, not "SV*"'s as their return value.
void av_clear(AV*);
void av_undef(AV*);
void av_extend(AV*, I32 key);
The "av_clear" function deletes all the elements in the AV* array, but does not actually delete the array itself. The "av_undef" function will delete all the elements in the array plus the array itself. The "av_extend" function extends the array so that it contains at least "key+1" elements. If "key+1" is less than the currently allocated length of the array, then nothing is done.
If you know the name of an array variable, you can get a pointer to its AV by using the following:
AV* get_av("package::varname", FALSE);
This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
See ``Understanding the Magic of Tied Hashes and Arrays'' for more information on how to use the array access functions on tied arrays.
HV* newHV();
Once the HV has been created, the following operations are possible on HVs:
SV** hv_store(HV*, const char* key, U32 klen, SV* val, U32 hash);
SV** hv_fetch(HV*, const char* key, U32 klen, I32 lval);
The "klen" parameter is the length of the key being passed in (Note that you cannot pass 0 in as a value of "klen" to tell Perl to measure the length of the key). The "val" argument contains the SV pointer to the scalar being stored, and "hash" is the precomputed hash value (zero if you want "hv_store" to calculate it for you). The "lval" parameter indicates whether this fetch is actually a part of a store operation, in which case a new undefined value will be added to the HV with the supplied key and "hv_fetch" will return as if the value had already existed.
Remember that "hv_store" and "hv_fetch" return "SV**"'s and not just "SV*". To access the scalar value, you must first dereference the return value. However, you should check to make sure that the return value is not NULL before dereferencing it.
These two functions check if a hash table entry exists, and deletes it.
bool hv_exists(HV*, const char* key, U32 klen);
SV* hv_delete(HV*, const char* key, U32 klen, I32 flags);
If "flags" does not include the "G_DISCARD" flag then "hv_delete" will create and return a mortal copy of the deleted value.
And more miscellaneous functions:
void hv_clear(HV*);
void hv_undef(HV*);
Like their AV counterparts, "hv_clear" deletes all the entries in the hash table but does not actually delete the hash table. The "hv_undef" deletes both the entries and the hash table itself.
Perl keeps the actual data in linked list of structures with a typedef of HE. These contain the actual key and value pointers (plus extra administrative overhead). The key is a string pointer; the value is an "SV*". However, once you have an "HE*", to get the actual key and value, use the routines specified below.
I32 hv_iterinit(HV*);
/* Prepares starting point to traverse hash table */
HE* hv_iternext(HV*);
/* Get the next entry, and return a pointer to a
structure that has both the key and value */
char* hv_iterkey(HE* entry, I32* retlen);
/* Get the key from an HE structure and also return
the length of the key string */
SV* hv_iterval(HV*, HE* entry);
/* Return an SV pointer to the value of the HE
structure */
SV* hv_iternextsv(HV*, char** key, I32* retlen);
/* This convenience routine combines hv_iternext,
hv_iterkey, and hv_iterval. The key and retlen
arguments are return values for the key and its
length. The value is returned in the SV* argument */
If you know the name of a hash variable, you can get a pointer to its HV by using the following:
HV* get_hv("package::varname", FALSE);
This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
The hash algorithm is defined in the "PERL_HASH(hash, key, klen)" macro:
hash = 0;
while (klen--)
hash = (hash * 33) + *key++;
hash = hash + (hash >> 5); /* after 5.6 */
The last step was added in version 5.6 to improve distribution of lower bits in the resulting hash value.
See ``Understanding the Magic of Tied Hashes and Arrays'' for more information on how to use the hash access functions on tied hashes.
HE* hv_fetch_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, I32 lval, U32 hash);
HE* hv_store_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, SV* val, U32 hash);
bool hv_exists_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, U32 hash);
SV* hv_delete_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, I32 flags, U32 hash);
SV* hv_iterkeysv (HE* entry);
Note that these functions take "SV*" keys, which simplifies writing of extension code that deals with hash structures. These functions also allow passing of "SV*" keys to "tie" functions without forcing you to stringify the keys (unlike the previous set of functions).
They also return and accept whole hash entries ("HE*"), making their use more efficient (since the hash number for a particular string doesn't have to be recomputed every time). See perlapi for detailed descriptions.
The following macros must always be used to access the contents of hash entries. Note that the arguments to these macros must be simple variables, since they may get evaluated more than once. See perlapi for detailed descriptions of these macros.
HePV(HE* he, STRLEN len)
HeVAL(HE* he)
HeHASH(HE* he)
HeSVKEY(HE* he)
HeSVKEY_force(HE* he)
HeSVKEY_set(HE* he, SV* sv)
These two lower level macros are defined, but must only be used when dealing with keys that are not "SV*"s:
HeKEY(HE* he)
HeKLEN(HE* he)
Note that both "hv_store" and "hv_store_ent" do not increment the reference count of the stored "val", which is the caller's responsibility. If these functions return a NULL value, the caller will usually have to decrement the reference count of "val" to avoid a memory leak.
For example, intuition tells you that this XS code:
AV *av = newAV();
av_store( av, 0, &PL_sv_undef );
is equivalent to this Perl code:
my @av;
$av[0] = undef;
Unfortunately, this isn't true. AVs use &PL_sv_undef as a marker for indicating that an array element has not yet been initialized. Thus, "exists $av[0]" would be true for the above Perl code, but false for the array generated by the XS code.
Other problems can occur when storing &PL_sv_undef in HVs:
hv_store( hv, "key", 3, &PL_sv_undef, 0 );
This will indeed make the value "undef", but if you try to modify the value of "key", you'll get the following error:
Modification of non-creatable hash value attempted
In perl 5.8.0, &PL_sv_undef was also used to mark placeholders in restricted hashes. This caused such hash entries not to appear when iterating over the hash or when checking for the keys with the "hv_exists" function.
You can run into similar problems when you store &PL_sv_true or &PL_sv_false into AVs or HVs. Trying to modify such elements will give you the following error:
Modification of a read-only value attempted
To make a long story short, you can use the special variables &PL_sv_undef, &PL_sv_true and &PL_sv_false with AVs and HVs, but you have to make sure you know what you're doing.
Generally, if you want to store an undefined value in an AV or HV, you should not use &PL_sv_undef, but rather create a new undefined value using the "newSV" function, for example:
av_store( av, 42, newSV(0) );
hv_store( hv, "foo", 3, newSV(0), 0 );
To create a reference, use either of the following functions:
SV* newRV_inc((SV*) thing);
SV* newRV_noinc((SV*) thing);
The "thing" argument can be any of an "SV*", "AV*", or "HV*". The functions are identical except that "newRV_inc" increments the reference count of the "thing", while "newRV_noinc" does not. For historical reasons, "newRV" is a synonym for "newRV_inc".
Once you have a reference, you can use the following macro to dereference the reference:
SvRV(SV*)
then call the appropriate routines, casting the returned "SV*" to either an "AV*" or "HV*", if required.
To determine if an SV is a reference, you can use the following macro:
SvROK(SV*)
To discover what type of value the reference refers to, use the following macro and then check the return value.
SvTYPE(SvRV(SV*))
The most useful types that will be returned are:
SVt_IV Scalar
SVt_NV Scalar
SVt_PV Scalar
SVt_RV Scalar
SVt_PVAV Array
SVt_PVHV Hash
SVt_PVCV Code
SVt_PVGV Glob (possible a file handle)
SVt_PVMG Blessed or Magical Scalar
See the sv.h header file for more details.
A reference can be blessed into a package with the following function:
SV* sv_bless(SV* sv, HV* stash);
The "sv" argument must be a reference value. The "stash" argument specifies which class the reference will belong to. See ``Stashes and Globs'' for information on converting class names into stashes.
/* Still under construction */
Upgrades rv to reference if not already one. Creates new SV for rv to point to. If "classname" is non-null, the SV is blessed into the specified class. SV is returned.
SV* newSVrv(SV* rv, const char* classname);
Copies integer, unsigned integer or double into an SV whose reference is "rv". SV is blessed if "classname" is non-null.
SV* sv_setref_iv(SV* rv, const char* classname, IV iv);
SV* sv_setref_uv(SV* rv, const char* classname, UV uv);
SV* sv_setref_nv(SV* rv, const char* classname, NV iv);
Copies the pointer value (the address, not the string!) into an SV whose reference is rv. SV is blessed if "classname" is non-null.
SV* sv_setref_pv(SV* rv, const char* classname, PV iv);
Copies string into an SV whose reference is "rv". Set length to 0 to let Perl calculate the string length. SV is blessed if "classname" is non-null.
SV* sv_setref_pvn(SV* rv, const char* classname, PV iv, STRLEN length);
Tests whether the SV is blessed into the specified class. It does not check inheritance relationships.
int sv_isa(SV* sv, const char* name);
Tests whether the SV is a reference to a blessed object.
int sv_isobject(SV* sv);
Tests whether the SV is derived from the specified class. SV can be either a reference to a blessed object or a string containing a class name. This is the function implementing the "UNIVERSAL::isa" functionality.
bool sv_derived_from(SV* sv, const char* name);
To check if you've got an object derived from a specific class you have to write:
if (sv_isobject(sv) && sv_derived_from(sv, class)) { ... }
SV* get_sv("package::varname", TRUE);
AV* get_av("package::varname", TRUE);
HV* get_hv("package::varname", TRUE);
Notice the use of TRUE as the second parameter. The new variable can now be set, using the routines appropriate to the data type.
There are additional macros whose values may be bitwise OR'ed with the "TRUE" argument to enable certain extra features. Those bits are:
Name <varname> used only once: possible typo
warning.
Had to create <varname> unexpectedly
if the variable did not exist before the function was called.
If you do not specify a package name, the variable is created in the current package.
This normally doesn't happen at the Perl level unless a variable is undef'ed or the last variable holding a reference to it is changed or overwritten. At the internal level, however, reference counts can be manipulated with the following macros:
int SvREFCNT(SV* sv);
SV* SvREFCNT_inc(SV* sv);
void SvREFCNT_dec(SV* sv);
However, there is one other function which manipulates the reference count of its argument. The "newRV_inc" function, you will recall, creates a reference to the specified argument. As a side effect, it increments the argument's reference count. If this is not what you want, use "newRV_noinc" instead.
For example, imagine you want to return a reference from an XSUB function. Inside the XSUB routine, you create an SV which initially has a reference count of one. Then you call "newRV_inc", passing it the just-created SV. This returns the reference as a new SV, but the reference count of the SV you passed to "newRV_inc" has been incremented to two. Now you return the reference from the XSUB routine and forget about the SV. But Perl hasn't! Whenever the returned reference is destroyed, the reference count of the original SV is decreased to one and nothing happens. The SV will hang around without any way to access it until Perl itself terminates. This is a memory leak.
The correct procedure, then, is to use "newRV_noinc" instead of "newRV_inc". Then, if and when the last reference is destroyed, the reference count of the SV will go to zero and it will be destroyed, stopping any memory leak.
There are some convenience functions available that can help with the destruction of xVs. These functions introduce the concept of ``mortality''. An xV that is mortal has had its reference count marked to be decremented, but not actually decremented, until ``a short time later''. Generally the term ``short time later'' means a single Perl statement, such as a call to an XSUB function. The actual determinant for when mortal xVs have their reference count decremented depends on two macros, SAVETMPS and FREETMPS. See perlcall and perlxs for more details on these macros.
``Mortalization'' then is at its simplest a deferred "SvREFCNT_dec". However, if you mortalize a variable twice, the reference count will later be decremented twice.
``Mortal'' SVs are mainly used for SVs that are placed on perl's stack. For example an SV which is created just to pass a number to a called sub is made mortal to have it cleaned up automatically when it's popped off the stack. Similarly, results returned by XSUBs (which are pushed on the stack) are often made mortal.
To create a mortal variable, use the functions:
SV* sv_newmortal()
SV* sv_2mortal(SV*)
SV* sv_mortalcopy(SV*)
The first call creates a mortal SV (with no value), the second converts an existing SV to a mortal SV (and thus defers a call to "SvREFCNT_dec"), and the third creates a mortal copy of an existing SV. Because "sv_newmortal" gives the new SV no value,it must normally be given one via "sv_setpv", "sv_setiv", etc. :
SV *tmp = sv_newmortal();
sv_setiv(tmp, an_integer);
As that is multiple C statements it is quite common so see this idiom instead:
SV *tmp = sv_2mortal(newSViv(an_integer));
You should be careful about creating mortal variables. Strange things can happen if you make the same value mortal within multiple contexts, or if you make a variable mortal multiple times. Thinking of ``Mortalization'' as deferred "SvREFCNT_dec" should help to minimize such problems. For example if you are passing an SV which you know has high enough REFCNT to survive its use on the stack you need not do any mortalization. If you are not sure then doing an "SvREFCNT_inc" and "sv_2mortal", or making a "sv_mortalcopy" is safer.
The mortal routines are not just for SVs --- AVs and HVs can be made mortal by passing their address (type-casted to "SV*") to the "sv_2mortal" or "sv_mortalcopy" routines.
Scalar Value
Array Value
Hash Value
I/O Handle
Format
Subroutine
There is a single stash called "PL_defstash" that holds the items that exist in the "main" package. To get at the items in other packages, append the string ``::'' to the package name. The items in the "Foo" package are in the stash "Foo::" in PL_defstash. The items in the "Bar::Baz" package are in the stash "Baz::" in "Bar::"'s stash.
To get the stash pointer for a particular package, use the function:
HV* gv_stashpv(const char* name, I32 create)
HV* gv_stashsv(SV*, I32 create)
The first function takes a literal string, the second uses the string stored in the SV. Remember that a stash is just a hash table, so you get back an "HV*". The "create" flag will create a new package if it is set.
The name that "gv_stash*v" wants is the name of the package whose symbol table you want. The default package is called "main". If you have multiply nested packages, pass their names to "gv_stash*v", separated by "::" as in the Perl language itself.
Alternately, if you have an SV that is a blessed reference, you can find out the stash pointer by using:
HV* SvSTASH(SvRV(SV*));
then use the following to get the package name itself:
char* HvNAME(HV* stash);
If you need to bless or re-bless an object you can use the following function:
SV* sv_bless(SV*, HV* stash)
where the first argument, an "SV*", must be a reference, and the second argument is a stash. The returned "SV*" can now be used in the same way as any other SV.
For more information on references and blessings, consult perlref.
Some scalar variables contain more than one type of scalar data. For example, the variable $! contains either the numeric value of "errno" or its string equivalent from either "strerror" or "sys_errlist[]".
To force multiple data values into an SV, you must do two things: use the "sv_set*v" routines to add the additional scalar type, then set a flag so that Perl will believe it contains more than one type of data. The four macros to set the flags are:
SvIOK_on
SvNOK_on
SvPOK_on
SvROK_on
The particular macro you must use depends on which "sv_set*v" routine you called first. This is because every "sv_set*v" routine turns on only the bit for the particular type of data being set, and turns off all the rest.
For example, to create a new Perl variable called ``dberror'' that contains both the numeric and descriptive string error values, you could use the following code:
extern int dberror;
extern char *dberror_list;
SV* sv = get_sv("dberror", TRUE);
sv_setiv(sv, (IV) dberror);
sv_setpv(sv, dberror_list[dberror]);
SvIOK_on(sv);
If the order of "sv_setiv" and "sv_setpv" had been reversed, then the macro "SvPOK_on" would need to be called instead of "SvIOK_on".
Any SV may be magical, that is, it has special features that a normal SV does not have. These features are stored in the SV structure in a linked list of "struct magic"'s, typedef'ed to "MAGIC".
struct magic {
MAGIC* mg_moremagic;
MGVTBL* mg_virtual;
U16 mg_private;
char mg_type;
U8 mg_flags;
SV* mg_obj;
char* mg_ptr;
I32 mg_len;
};
Note this is current as of patchlevel 0, and could change at any time.
void sv_magic(SV* sv, SV* obj, int how, const char* name, I32 namlen);
The "sv" argument is a pointer to the SV that is to acquire a new magical feature.
If "sv" is not already magical, Perl uses the "SvUPGRADE" macro to convert "sv" to type "SVt_PVMG". Perl then continues by adding new magic to the beginning of the linked list of magical features. Any prior entry of the same type of magic is deleted. Note that this can be overridden, and multiple instances of the same type of magic can be associated with an SV.
The "name" and "namlen" arguments are used to associate a string with the magic, typically the name of a variable. "namlen" is stored in the "mg_len" field and if "name" is non-null then either a "savepvn" copy of "name" or "name" itself is stored in the "mg_ptr" field, depending on whether "namlen" is greater than zero or equal to zero respectively. As a special case, if "(name && namlen == HEf_SVKEY)" then "name" is assumed to contain an "SV*" and is stored as-is with its REFCNT incremented.
The sv_magic function uses "how" to determine which, if any, predefined ``Magic Virtual Table'' should be assigned to the "mg_virtual" field. See the ``Magic Virtual Tables'' section below. The "how" argument is also stored in the "mg_type" field. The value of "how" should be chosen from the set of macros "PERL_MAGIC_foo" found in perl.h. Note that before these macros were added, Perl internals used to directly use character literals, so you may occasionally come across old code or documentation referring to 'U' magic rather than "PERL_MAGIC_uvar" for example.
The "obj" argument is stored in the "mg_obj" field of the "MAGIC" structure. If it is not the same as the "sv" argument, the reference count of the "obj" object is incremented. If it is the same, or if the "how" argument is "PERL_MAGIC_arylen", or if it is a NULL pointer, then "obj" is merely stored, without the reference count being incremented.
See also "sv_magicext" in perlapi for a more flexible way to add magic to an SV.
There is also a function to add magic to an "HV":
void hv_magic(HV *hv, GV *gv, int how);
This simply calls "sv_magic" and coerces the "gv" argument into an "SV".
To remove the magic from an SV, call the function sv_unmagic:
void sv_unmagic(SV *sv, int type);
The "type" argument should be equal to the "how" value when the "SV" was initially made magical.
The "MGVTBL" has five pointers to the following routine types:
int (*svt_get)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
int (*svt_set)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
U32 (*svt_len)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
int (*svt_clear)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
int (*svt_free)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
This MGVTBL structure is set at compile-time in perl.h and there are currently 19 types (or 21 with overloading turned on). These different structures contain pointers to various routines that perform additional actions depending on which function is being called.
Function pointer Action taken
---------------- ------------
svt_get Do something before the value of the SV is retrieved.
svt_set Do something after the SV is assigned a value.
svt_len Report on the SV's length.
svt_clear Clear something the SV represents.
svt_free Free any extra storage associated with the SV.
For instance, the MGVTBL structure called "vtbl_sv" (which corresponds to an "mg_type" of "PERL_MAGIC_sv") contains:
{ magic_get, magic_set, magic_len, 0, 0 }
Thus, when an SV is determined to be magical and of type "PERL_MAGIC_sv", if a get operation is being performed, the routine "magic_get" is called. All the various routines for the various magical types begin with "magic_". NOTE: the magic routines are not considered part of the Perl API, and may not be exported by the Perl library.
The current kinds of Magic Virtual Tables are:
mg_type
(old-style char and macro) MGVTBL Type of magic
-------------------------- ------ ----------------------------
\0 PERL_MAGIC_sv vtbl_sv Special scalar variable
A PERL_MAGIC_overload vtbl_amagic %OVERLOAD hash
a PERL_MAGIC_overload_elem vtbl_amagicelem %OVERLOAD hash element
c PERL_MAGIC_overload_table (none) Holds overload table (AMT)
on stash
B PERL_MAGIC_bm vtbl_bm Boyer-Moore (fast string search)
D PERL_MAGIC_regdata vtbl_regdata Regex match position data
(@+ and @- vars)
d PERL_MAGIC_regdatum vtbl_regdatum Regex match position data
element
E PERL_MAGIC_env vtbl_env %ENV hash
e PERL_MAGIC_envelem vtbl_envelem %ENV hash element
f PERL_MAGIC_fm vtbl_fm Formline ('compiled' format)
g PERL_MAGIC_regex_global vtbl_mglob m//g target / study()ed string
I PERL_MAGIC_isa vtbl_isa @ISA array
i PERL_MAGIC_isaelem vtbl_isaelem @ISA array element
k PERL_MAGIC_nkeys vtbl_nkeys scalar(keys()) lvalue
L PERL_MAGIC_dbfile (none) Debugger %_<filename
l PERL_MAGIC_dbline vtbl_dbline Debugger %_<filename element
m PERL_MAGIC_mutex vtbl_mutex ???
o PERL_MAGIC_collxfrm vtbl_collxfrm Locale collate transformation
P PERL_MAGIC_tied vtbl_pack Tied array or hash
p PERL_MAGIC_tiedelem vtbl_packelem Tied array or hash element
q PERL_MAGIC_tiedscalar vtbl_packelem Tied scalar or handle
r PERL_MAGIC_qr vtbl_qr precompiled qr// regex
S PERL_MAGIC_sig vtbl_sig %SIG hash
s PERL_MAGIC_sigelem vtbl_sigelem %SIG hash element
t PERL_MAGIC_taint vtbl_taint Taintedness
U PERL_MAGIC_uvar vtbl_uvar Available for use by extensions
v PERL_MAGIC_vec vtbl_vec vec() lvalue
V PERL_MAGIC_vstring (none) v-string scalars
w PERL_MAGIC_utf8 vtbl_utf8 UTF-8 length+offset cache
x PERL_MAGIC_substr vtbl_substr substr() lvalue
y PERL_MAGIC_defelem vtbl_defelem Shadow "foreach" iterator
variable / smart parameter
vivification
* PERL_MAGIC_glob vtbl_glob GV (typeglob)
# PERL_MAGIC_arylen vtbl_arylen Array length ($#ary)
. PERL_MAGIC_pos vtbl_pos pos() lvalue
< PERL_MAGIC_backref vtbl_backref ???
~ PERL_MAGIC_ext (none) Available for use by extensions
When an uppercase and lowercase letter both exist in the table, then the uppercase letter is typically used to represent some kind of composite type (a list or a hash), and the lowercase letter is used to represent an element of that composite type. Some internals code makes use of this case relationship. However, 'v' and 'V' (vec and v-string) are in no way related.
The "PERL_MAGIC_ext" and "PERL_MAGIC_uvar" magic types are defined specifically for use by extensions and will not be used by perl itself. Extensions can use "PERL_MAGIC_ext" magic to 'attach' private information to variables (typically objects). This is especially useful because there is no way for normal perl code to corrupt this private information (unlike using extra elements of a hash object).
Similarly, "PERL_MAGIC_uvar" magic can be used much like tie() to call a C function any time a scalar's value is used or changed. The "MAGIC"'s "mg_ptr" field points to a "ufuncs" structure:
struct ufuncs {
I32 (*uf_val)(pTHX_ IV, SV*);
I32 (*uf_set)(pTHX_ IV, SV*);
IV uf_index;
};
When the SV is read from or written to, the "uf_val" or "uf_set" function will be called with "uf_index" as the first arg and a pointer to the SV as the second. A simple example of how to add "PERL_MAGIC_uvar" magic is shown below. Note that the ufuncs structure is copied by sv_magic, so you can safely allocate it on the stack.
void
Umagic(sv)
SV *sv;
PREINIT:
struct ufuncs uf;
CODE:
uf.uf_val = &my_get_fn;
uf.uf_set = &my_set_fn;
uf.uf_index = 0;
sv_magic(sv, 0, PERL_MAGIC_uvar, (char*)&uf, sizeof(uf));
Note that because multiple extensions may be using "PERL_MAGIC_ext" or "PERL_MAGIC_uvar" magic, it is important for extensions to take extra care to avoid conflict. Typically only using the magic on objects blessed into the same class as the extension is sufficient. For "PERL_MAGIC_ext" magic, it may also be appropriate to add an I32 'signature' at the top of the private data area and check that.
Also note that the "sv_set*()" and "sv_cat*()" functions described earlier do not invoke 'set' magic on their targets. This must be done by the user either by calling the "SvSETMAGIC()" macro after calling these functions, or by using one of the "sv_set*_mg()" or "sv_cat*_mg()" functions. Similarly, generic C code must call the "SvGETMAGIC()" macro to invoke any 'get' magic if they use an SV obtained from external sources in functions that don't handle magic. See perlapi for a description of these functions. For example, calls to the "sv_cat*()" functions typically need to be followed by "SvSETMAGIC()", but they don't need a prior "SvGETMAGIC()" since their implementation handles 'get' magic.
MAGIC* mg_find(SV*, int type); /* Finds the magic pointer of that type */
This routine returns a pointer to the "MAGIC" structure stored in the SV. If the SV does not have that magical feature, "NULL" is returned. Also, if the SV is not of type SVt_PVMG, Perl may core dump.
int mg_copy(SV* sv, SV* nsv, const char* key, STRLEN klen);
This routine checks to see what types of magic "sv" has. If the mg_type field is an uppercase letter, then the mg_obj is copied to "nsv", but the mg_type field is changed to be the lowercase letter.
WARNING: As of the 5.004 release, proper usage of the array and hash access functions requires understanding a few caveats. Some of these caveats are actually considered bugs in the API, to be fixed in later releases, and are bracketed with [MAYCHANGE] below. If you find yourself actually applying such information in this section, be aware that the behavior may change in the future, umm, without warning.
The perl tie function associates a variable with an object that implements the various GET, SET, etc methods. To perform the equivalent of the perl tie function from an XSUB, you must mimic this behaviour. The code below carries out the necessary steps - firstly it creates a new hash, and then creates a second hash which it blesses into the class which will implement the tie methods. Lastly it ties the two hashes together, and returns a reference to the new tied hash. Note that the code below does NOT call the TIEHASH method in the MyTie class - see ``Calling Perl Routines from within C Programs'' for details on how to do this.
SV*
mytie()
PREINIT:
HV *hash;
HV *stash;
SV *tie;
CODE:
hash = newHV();
tie = newRV_noinc((SV*)newHV());
stash = gv_stashpv("MyTie", TRUE);
sv_bless(tie, stash);
hv_magic(hash, (GV*)tie, PERL_MAGIC_tied);
RETVAL = newRV_noinc(hash);
OUTPUT:
RETVAL
The "av_store" function, when given a tied array argument, merely copies the magic of the array onto the value to be ``stored'', using "mg_copy". It may also return NULL, indicating that the value did not actually need to be stored in the array. [MAYCHANGE] After a call to "av_store" on a tied array, the caller will usually need to call "mg_set(val)" to actually invoke the perl level ``STORE'' method on the TIEARRAY object. If "av_store" did return NULL, a call to "SvREFCNT_dec(val)" will also be usually necessary to avoid a memory leak. [/MAYCHANGE]
The previous paragraph is applicable verbatim to tied hash access using the "hv_store" and "hv_store_ent" functions as well.
"av_fetch" and the corresponding hash functions "hv_fetch" and "hv_fetch_ent" actually return an undefined mortal value whose magic has been initialized using "mg_copy". Note the value so returned does not need to be deallocated, as it is already mortal. [MAYCHANGE] But you will need to call "mg_get()" on the returned value in order to actually invoke the perl level ``FETCH'' method on the underlying TIE object. Similarly, you may also call "mg_set()" on the return value after possibly assigning a suitable value to it using "sv_setsv", which will invoke the ``STORE'' method on the TIE object. [/MAYCHANGE]
[MAYCHANGE] In other words, the array or hash fetch/store functions don't really fetch and store actual values in the case of tied arrays and hashes. They merely call "mg_copy" to attach magic to the values that were meant to be ``stored'' or ``fetched''. Later calls to "mg_get" and "mg_set" actually do the job of invoking the TIE methods on the underlying objects. Thus the magic mechanism currently implements a kind of lazy access to arrays and hashes.
Currently (as of perl version 5.004), use of the hash and array access functions requires the user to be aware of whether they are operating on ``normal'' hashes and arrays, or on their tied variants. The API may be changed to provide more transparent access to both tied and normal data types in future versions. [/MAYCHANGE]
You would do well to understand that the TIEARRAY and TIEHASH interfaces are mere sugar to invoke some perl method calls while using the uniform hash and array syntax. The use of this sugar imposes some overhead (typically about two to four extra opcodes per FETCH/STORE operation, in addition to the creation of all the mortal variables required to invoke the methods). This overhead will be comparatively small if the TIE methods are themselves substantial, but if they are only a few statements long, the overhead will not be insignificant.
{
local $var = 2;
...
}
This construction is approximately equivalent to
{
my $oldvar = $var;
$var = 2;
...
$var = $oldvar;
}
The biggest difference is that the first construction would reinstate the initial value of $var, irrespective of how control exits the block: "goto", "return", "die"/"eval", etc. It is a little bit more efficient as well.
There is a way to achieve a similar task from C via Perl API: create a pseudo-block, and arrange for some changes to be automatically undone at the end of it, either explicit, or via a non-local exit (via die()). A block-like construct is created by a pair of "ENTER"/"LEAVE" macros (see ``Returning a Scalar'' in perlcall). Such a construct may be created specially for some important localized task, or an existing one (like boundaries of enclosing Perl subroutine/block, or an existing pair for freeing TMPs) may be used. (In the second case the overhead of additional localization must be almost negligible.) Note that any XSUB is automatically enclosed in an "ENTER"/"LEAVE" pair.
Inside such a pseudo-block the following service is available:
Also compare "SAVEMORTALIZESV".
SAVEDELETE(PL_defstash, savepv(tmpbuf), strlen(tmpbuf));
The following API list contains functions, thus one needs to provide pointers to the modifiable data explicitly (either C pointers, or Perlish "GV *"s). Where the above macros take "int", a similar function takes "int *".
The "Alias" module implements localization of the basic types within the caller's scope. People who are interested in how to localize things in the containing scope should take a look there too.
The stack arguments are accessible through the ST(n) macro, which returns the "n"'th stack argument. Argument 0 is the first argument passed in the Perl subroutine call. These arguments are "SV*", and can be used anywhere an "SV*" is used.
Most of the time, output from the C routine can be handled through use of the RETVAL and OUTPUT directives. However, there are some cases where the argument stack is not already long enough to handle all the return values. An example is the POSIX tzname() call, which takes no arguments, but returns two, the local time zone's standard and summer time abbreviations.
To handle this situation, the PPCODE directive is used and the stack is extended using the macro:
EXTEND(SP, num);
where "SP" is the macro that represents the local copy of the stack pointer, and "num" is the number of elements the stack should be extended by.
Now that there is room on the stack, values can be pushed on it using "PUSHs" macro. The pushed values will often need to be ``mortal'' (See ``Reference Counts and Mortality''):
PUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSViv(an_integer)))
PUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSVuv(an_unsigned_integer)))
PUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSVnv(a_double)))
PUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSVpv("Some String",0)))
And now the Perl program calling "tzname", the two values will be assigned as in:
($standard_abbrev, $summer_abbrev) = POSIX::tzname;
An alternate (and possibly simpler) method to pushing values on the stack is to use the macro:
XPUSHs(SV*)
This macro automatically adjust the stack for you, if needed. Thus, you do not need to call "EXTEND" to extend the stack.
Despite their suggestions in earlier versions of this document the macros "(X)PUSH[iunp]" are not suited to XSUBs which return multiple results. For that, either stick to the "(X)PUSHs" macros shown above, or use the new "m(X)PUSH[iunp]" macros instead; see ``Putting a C value on Perl stack''.
For more information, consult perlxs and perlxstut.
I32 call_sv(SV*, I32);
I32 call_pv(const char*, I32);
I32 call_method(const char*, I32);
I32 call_argv(const char*, I32, register char**);
The routine most often used is "call_sv". The "SV*" argument contains either the name of the Perl subroutine to be called, or a reference to the subroutine. The second argument consists of flags that control the context in which the subroutine is called, whether or not the subroutine is being passed arguments, how errors should be trapped, and how to treat return values.
All four routines return the number of arguments that the subroutine returned on the Perl stack.
These routines used to be called "perl_call_sv", etc., before Perl v5.6.0, but those names are now deprecated; macros of the same name are provided for compatibility.
When using any of these routines (except "call_argv"), the programmer must manipulate the Perl stack. These include the following macros and functions:
dSP
SP
PUSHMARK()
PUTBACK
SPAGAIN
ENTER
SAVETMPS
FREETMPS
LEAVE
XPUSH*()
POP*()
For a detailed description of calling conventions from C to Perl, consult perlcall.
All memory meant to be used with the Perl API functions should be manipulated using the macros described in this section. The macros provide the necessary transparency between differences in the actual malloc implementation that is used within perl.
It is suggested that you enable the version of malloc that is distributed with Perl. It keeps pools of various sizes of unallocated memory in order to satisfy allocation requests more quickly. However, on some platforms, it may cause spurious malloc or free errors.
The following three macros are used to initially allocate memory :
Newx(pointer, number, type);
Newxc(pointer, number, type, cast);
Newxz(pointer, number, type);
The first argument "pointer" should be the name of a variable that will point to the newly allocated memory.
The second and third arguments "number" and "type" specify how many of the specified type of data structure should be allocated. The argument "type" is passed to "sizeof". The final argument to "Newxc", "cast", should be used if the "pointer" argument is different from the "type" argument.
Unlike the "Newx" and "Newxc" macros, the "Newxz" macro calls "memzero" to zero out all the newly allocated memory.
Renew(pointer, number, type);
Renewc(pointer, number, type, cast);
Safefree(pointer)
These three macros are used to change a memory buffer size or to free a piece of memory no longer needed. The arguments to "Renew" and "Renewc" match those of "New" and "Newc" with the exception of not needing the ``magic cookie'' argument.
Move(source, dest, number, type);
Copy(source, dest, number, type);
Zero(dest, number, type);
These three macros are used to move, copy, or zero out previously allocated memory. The "source" and "dest" arguments point to the source and destination starting points. Perl will move, copy, or zero out "number" instances of the size of the "type" data structure (using the "sizeof" function).
For a complete description of the PerlIO abstraction, consult perlapio.
Each of the targets is created only once (but see ``Scratchpads and recursion'' below), and when an opcode needs to put an integer, a double, or a string on stack, it just sets the corresponding parts of its target and puts the target on stack.
The macro to put this target on stack is "PUSHTARG", and it is directly used in some opcodes, as well as indirectly in zillions of others, which use it via "(X)PUSH[iunp]".
Because the target is reused, you must be careful when pushing multiple values on the stack. The following code will not do what you think:
XPUSHi(10);
XPUSHi(20);
This translates as "set "TARG" to 10, push a pointer to "TARG" onto the stack; set "TARG" to 20, push a pointer to "TARG" onto the stack". At the end of the operation, the stack does not contain the values 10 and 20, but actually contains two pointers to "TARG", which we have set to 20.
If you need to push multiple different values then you should either use the "(X)PUSHs" macros, or else use the new "m(X)PUSH[iunp]" macros, none of which make use of "TARG". The "(X)PUSHs" macros simply push an SV* on the stack, which, as noted under ``XSUBs and the Argument Stack'', will often need to be ``mortal''. The new "m(X)PUSH[iunp]" macros make this a little easier to achieve by creating a new mortal for you (via "(X)PUSHmortal"), pushing that onto the stack (extending it if necessary in the case of the "mXPUSH[iunp]" macros), and then setting its value. Thus, instead of writing this to ``fix'' the example above:
XPUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSViv(10)))
XPUSHs(sv_2mortal(newSViv(20)))
you can simply write:
mXPUSHi(10)
mXPUSHi(20)
On a related note, if you do use "(X)PUSH[iunp]", then you're going to need a "dTARG" in your variable declarations so that the "*PUSH*" macros can make use of the local variable "TARG". See also "dTARGET" and "dXSTARG".
A scratchpad keeps SVs which are lexicals for the current unit and are targets for opcodes. One can deduce that an SV lives on a scratchpad by looking on its flags: lexicals have "SVs_PADMY" set, and targets have "SVs_PADTMP" set.
The correspondence between OPs and targets is not 1-to-1. Different OPs in the compile tree of the unit can use the same target, if this would not conflict with the expected life of the temporary.
The answer is recursion, and maybe threads. Both these can create several execution pointers going into the same subroutine. For the subroutine-child not write over the temporaries for the subroutine-parent (lifespan of which covers the call to the child), the parent and the child should have different scratchpads. (And the lexicals should be separate anyway!)
So each subroutine is born with an array of scratchpads (of length 1). On each entry to the subroutine it is checked that the current depth of the recursion is not more than the length of this array, and if it is, new scratchpad is created and pushed into the array.
The targets on this scratchpad are "undef"s, but they are already marked with correct flags.
$a = $b + $c;
This is converted to a tree similar to this one:
assign-to
/ \
+ $a
/ \
$b $c
(but slightly more complicated). This tree reflects the way Perl parsed your code, but has nothing to do with the execution order. There is an additional ``thread'' going through the nodes of the tree which shows the order of execution of the nodes. In our simplified example above it looks like:
$b ---> $c ---> + ---> $a ---> assign-to
But with the actual compile tree for "$a = $b + $c" it is different: some nodes optimized away. As a corollary, though the actual tree contains more nodes than our simplified example, the execution order is the same as in our example.
5 TYPE = add ===> 6
TARG = 1
FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
{
TYPE = null ===> (4)
(was rv2sv)
FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
{
3 TYPE = gvsv ===> 4
FLAGS = (SCALAR)
GV = main::b
}
}
{
TYPE = null ===> (5)
(was rv2sv)
FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
{
4 TYPE = gvsv ===> 5
FLAGS = (SCALAR)
GV = main::c
}
}
This tree has 5 nodes (one per "TYPE" specifier), only 3 of them are not optimized away (one per number in the left column). The immediate children of the given node correspond to "{}" pairs on the same level of indentation, thus this listing corresponds to the tree:
add
/ \
null null
| |
gvsv gvsv
The execution order is indicated by "===>" marks, thus it is "3 4 5 6" (node 6 is not included into above listing), i.e., "gvsv gvsv add whatever".
Each of these nodes represents an op, a fundamental operation inside the Perl core. The code which implements each operation can be found in the pp*.c files; the function which implements the op with type "gvsv" is "pp_gvsv", and so on. As the tree above shows, different ops have different numbers of children: "add" is a binary operator, as one would expect, and so has two children. To accommodate the various different numbers of children, there are various types of op data structure, and they link together in different ways.
The simplest type of op structure is "OP": this has no children. Unary operators, "UNOP"s, have one child, and this is pointed to by the "op_first" field. Binary operators ("BINOP"s) have not only an "op_first" field but also an "op_last" field. The most complex type of op is a "LISTOP", which has any number of children. In this case, the first child is pointed to by "op_first" and the last child by "op_last". The children in between can be found by iteratively following the "op_sibling" pointer from the first child to the last.
There are also two other op types: a "PMOP" holds a regular expression, and has no children, and a "LOOP" may or may not have children. If the "op_children" field is non-zero, it behaves like a "LISTOP". To complicate matters, if a "UNOP" is actually a "null" op after optimization (see ``Compile pass 2: context propagation'') it will still have children in accordance with its former type.
Another way to examine the tree is to use a compiler back-end module, such as B::Concise.
What makes this pass interesting for perl developers is that some optimization may be performed on this pass. This is optimization by so-called ``check routines''. The correspondence between node names and corresponding check routines is described in opcode.pl (do not forget to run "make regen_headers" if you modify this file).
A check routine is called when the node is fully constructed except for the execution-order thread. Since at this time there are no back-links to the currently constructed node, one can do most any operation to the top-level node, including freeing it and/or creating new nodes above/below it.
The check routine returns the node which should be inserted into the tree (if the top-level node was not modified, check routine returns its argument).
By convention, check routines have names "ck_*". They are usually called from "new*OP" subroutines (or "convert") (which in turn are called from perly.y).
If constant folding was not performed, the execution-order thread is created.
Additional context-dependent optimizations are performed at this time. Since at this moment the compile tree contains back-references (via ``thread'' pointers), nodes cannot be free()d now. To allow optimized-away nodes at this stage, such nodes are null()ified instead of free()ing (i.e. their type is changed to OP_NULL).
It's probably best to copy one of the existing runops functions and change it to suit your needs. Then, in the BOOT section of your XS file, add the line:
PL_runops = my_runops;
This function should be as efficient as possible to keep your programs running as fast as possible.
The most commonly used of these functions is "Perl_sv_dump"; it's used for dumping SVs, AVs, HVs, and CVs. The "Devel::Peek" module calls "sv_dump" to produce debugging output from Perl-space, so users of that module should already be familiar with its format.
"Perl_op_dump" can be used to dump an "OP" structure or any of its derivatives, and produces output similar to "perl -Dx"; in fact, "Perl_dump_eval" will dump the main root of the code being evaluated, exactly like "-Dx".
Other useful functions are "Perl_dump_sub", which turns a "GV" into an op tree, "Perl_dump_packsubs" which calls "Perl_dump_sub" on all the subroutines in a package like so: (Thankfully, these are all xsubs, so there is no op tree)
(gdb) print Perl_dump_packsubs(PL_defstash)
SUB attributes::bootstrap = (xsub 0x811fedc 0)
SUB UNIVERSAL::can = (xsub 0x811f50c 0)
SUB UNIVERSAL::isa = (xsub 0x811f304 0)
SUB UNIVERSAL::VERSION = (xsub 0x811f7ac 0)
SUB DynaLoader::boot_DynaLoader = (xsub 0x805b188 0)
and "Perl_dump_all", which dumps all the subroutines in the stash and the op tree of the main root.
Two macros control the major Perl build flavors: MULTIPLICITY and USE_5005THREADS. The MULTIPLICITY build has a C structure that packages all the interpreter state, and there is a similar thread-specific data structure under USE_5005THREADS. In both cases, PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT is also normally defined, and enables the support for passing in a ``hidden'' first argument that represents all three data structures.
All this obviously requires a way for the Perl internal functions to be either subroutines taking some kind of structure as the first argument, or subroutines taking nothing as the first argument. To enable these two very different ways of building the interpreter, the Perl source (as it does in so many other situations) makes heavy use of macros and subroutine naming conventions.
First problem: deciding which functions will be public API functions and which will be private. All functions whose names begin "S_" are private (think ``S'' for ``secret'' or ``static''). All other functions begin with ``Perl_'', but just because a function begins with ``Perl_'' does not mean it is part of the API. (See ``Internal Functions''.) The easiest way to be sure a function is part of the API is to find its entry in perlapi. If it exists in perlapi, it's part of the API. If it doesn't, and you think it should be (i.e., you need it for your extension), send mail via perlbug explaining why you think it should be.
Second problem: there must be a syntax so that the same subroutine declarations and calls can pass a structure as their first argument, or pass nothing. To solve this, the subroutines are named and declared in a particular way. Here's a typical start of a static function used within the Perl guts:
STATIC void S_incline(pTHX_ char *s)
STATIC becomes ``static'' in C, and may be #define'd to nothing in some configurations in future.
A public function (i.e. part of the internal API, but not necessarily sanctioned for use in extensions) begins like this:
void Perl_sv_setiv(pTHX_ SV* dsv, IV num)
"pTHX_" is one of a number of macros (in perl.h) that hide the details of the interpreter's context. THX stands for ``thread'', ``this'', or ``thingy'', as the case may be. (And no, George Lucas is not involved. :-) The first character could be 'p' for a prototype, 'a' for argument, or 'd' for declaration, so we have "pTHX", "aTHX" and "dTHX", and their variants.
When Perl is built without options that set PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT, there is no first argument containing the interpreter's context. The trailing underscore in the pTHX_ macro indicates that the macro expansion needs a comma after the context argument because other arguments follow it. If PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT is not defined, pTHX_ will be ignored, and the subroutine is not prototyped to take the extra argument. The form of the macro without the trailing underscore is used when there are no additional explicit arguments.
When a core function calls another, it must pass the context. This is normally hidden via macros. Consider "sv_setiv". It expands into something like this:
#ifdef PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT
#define sv_setiv(a,b) Perl_sv_setiv(aTHX_ a, b)
/* can't do this for vararg functions, see below */
#else
#define sv_setiv Perl_sv_setiv
#endif
This works well, and means that XS authors can gleefully write:
sv_setiv(foo, bar);
and still have it work under all the modes Perl could have been compiled with.
This doesn't work so cleanly for varargs functions, though, as macros imply that the number of arguments is known in advance. Instead we either need to spell them out fully, passing "aTHX_" as the first argument (the Perl core tends to do this with functions like Perl_warner), or use a context-free version.
The context-free version of Perl_warner is called Perl_warner_nocontext, and does not take the extra argument. Instead it does dTHX; to get the context from thread-local storage. We "#define warner Perl_warner_nocontext" so that extensions get source compatibility at the expense of performance. (Passing an arg is cheaper than grabbing it from thread-local storage.)
You can ignore [pad]THXx when browsing the Perl headers/sources. Those are strictly for use within the core. Extensions and embedders need only be aware of [pad]THX.
There are three ways to do this. First, the easy but inefficient way, which is also the default, in order to maintain source compatibility with extensions: whenever XSUB.h is #included, it redefines the aTHX and aTHX_ macros to call a function that will return the context. Thus, something like:
sv_setiv(sv, num);
in your extension will translate to this when PERL_IMPLICIT_CONTEXT is in effect:
Perl_sv_setiv(Perl_get_context(), sv, num);
or to this otherwise:
Perl_sv_setiv(sv, num);
You have to do nothing new in your extension to get this; since the Perl library provides Perl_get_context(), it will all just work.
The second, more efficient way is to use the following template for your Foo.xs:
#define PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT /* we want efficiency */
#include "EXTERN.h"
#include "perl.h"
#include "XSUB.h"
static my_private_function(int arg1, int arg2);
static SV *
my_private_function(int arg1, int arg2)
{
dTHX; /* fetch context */
... call many Perl API functions ...
}
[... etc ...]
MODULE = Foo PACKAGE = Foo
/* typical XSUB */
void
my_xsub(arg)
int arg
CODE:
my_private_function(arg, 10);
Note that the only two changes from the normal way of writing an extension is the addition of a "#define PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT" before including the Perl headers, followed by a "dTHX;" declaration at the start of every function that will call the Perl API. (You'll know which functions need this, because the C compiler will complain that there's an undeclared identifier in those functions.) No changes are needed for the XSUBs themselves, because the XS() macro is correctly defined to pass in the implicit context if needed.
The third, even more efficient way is to ape how it is done within the Perl guts:
#define PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT /* we want efficiency */
#include "EXTERN.h"
#include "perl.h"
#include "XSUB.h"
/* pTHX_ only needed for functions that call Perl API */
static my_private_function(pTHX_ int arg1, int arg2);
static SV *
my_private_function(pTHX_ int arg1, int arg2)
{
/* dTHX; not needed here, because THX is an argument */
... call Perl API functions ...
}
[... etc ...]
MODULE = Foo PACKAGE = Foo
/* typical XSUB */
void
my_xsub(arg)
int arg
CODE:
my_private_function(aTHX_ arg, 10);
This implementation never has to fetch the context using a function call, since it is always passed as an extra argument. Depending on your needs for simplicity or efficiency, you may mix the previous two approaches freely.
Never add a comma after "pTHX" yourself---always use the form of the macro with the underscore for functions that take explicit arguments, or the form without the argument for functions with no explicit arguments.
The "perl_alloc" and "perl_clone" API functions will automatically set the TLS slot to the interpreter they created, so that there is no need to do anything special if the interpreter is always accessed in the same thread that created it, and that thread did not create or call any other interpreters afterwards. If that is not the case, you have to set the TLS slot of the thread before calling any functions in the Perl API on that particular interpreter. This is done by calling the "PERL_SET_CONTEXT" macro in that thread as the first thing you do:
/* do this before doing anything else with some_perl */
PERL_SET_CONTEXT(some_perl);
... other Perl API calls on some_perl go here ...
This allows the ability to provide an extra pointer (called the ``host'' environment) for all the system calls. This makes it possible for all the system stuff to maintain their own state, broken down into seven C structures. These are thin wrappers around the usual system calls (see win32/perllib.c) for the default perl executable, but for a more ambitious host (like the one that would do fork() emulation) all the extra work needed to pretend that different interpreters are actually different ``processes'', would be done here.
The Perl engine/interpreter and the host are orthogonal entities. There could be one or more interpreters in a process, and one or more ``hosts'', with free association between them.
Inside the Perl core, you can get at the functions either with or without the "Perl_" prefix, thanks to a bunch of defines that live in embed.h. This header file is generated automatically from embed.pl and embed.fnc. embed.pl also creates the prototyping header files for the internal functions, generates the documentation and a lot of other bits and pieces. It's important that when you add a new function to the core or change an existing one, you change the data in the table in embed.fnc as well. Here's a sample entry from that table:
Apd |SV** |av_fetch |AV* ar|I32 key|I32 lval
The second column is the return type, the third column the name. Columns after that are the arguments. The first column is a set of flags:
Other available flags are:
Afprd |void |croak |const char* pat|...
If you edit embed.pl or embed.fnc, you will need to run "make regen_headers" to force a rebuild of embed.h and other auto-generated files.
IVdf IV in decimal
UVuf UV in decimal
UVof UV in octal
UVxf UV in hexadecimal
NVef NV %e-like
NVff NV %f-like
NVgf NV %g-like
These will take care of 64-bit integers and long doubles. For example:
printf("IV is %"IVdf"\n", iv);
The IVdf will expand to whatever is the correct format for the IVs.
If you are printing addresses of pointers, use UVxf combined with PTR2UV(), do not use %lx or %p.
PTR2UV(pointer)
PTR2IV(pointer)
PTR2NV(pointer)
INT2PTR(pointertotype, integer)
For example:
IV iv = ...;
SV *sv = INT2PTR(SV*, iv);
and
AV *av = ...;
UV uv = PTR2UV(av);
Source documentation is created by putting POD comments into the C source, like this:
/* =for apidoc sv_setiv
Copies an integer into the given SV. Does not handle 'set' magic. See C<sv_setiv_mg>.
=cut */
Please try and supply some documentation if you add functions to the Perl core.
"Devel::PPPort" generates a C header file ppport.h that can also be run as a Perl script. To generate ppport.h, run:
perl -MDevel::PPPort -eDevel::PPPort::WriteFile
Besides checking existing XS code, the script can also be used to retrieve compatibility information for various API calls using the "--api-info" command line switch. For example:
% perl ppport.h --api-info=sv_magicext
For details, see "perldoc ppport.h".
Worse still, if you've got a language like Chinese or Japanese that has hundreds or thousands of characters, then you really can't fit them into a mere 256, so they had to forget about ASCII altogether, and build their own systems using pairs of numbers to refer to one character.
To fix this, some people formed Unicode, Inc. and produced a new character set containing all the characters you can possibly think of and more. There are several ways of representing these characters, and the one Perl uses is called UTF-8. UTF-8 uses a variable number of bytes to represent a character, instead of just one. You can learn more about Unicode at http://www.unicode.org/
The API function "is_utf8_string" can help; it'll tell you if a string contains only valid UTF-8 characters. However, it can't do the work for you. On a character-by-character basis, "is_utf8_char" will tell you whether the current character in a string is valid UTF-8.
Assuming you know you're dealing with a UTF-8 string, you can find out how long the first character in it is with the "UTF8SKIP" macro:
char *utf = "\305\233\340\240\201";
I32 len;
len = UTF8SKIP(utf); /* len is 2 here */
utf += len;
len = UTF8SKIP(utf); /* len is 3 here */
Another way to skip over characters in a UTF-8 string is to use "utf8_hop", which takes a string and a number of characters to skip over. You're on your own about bounds checking, though, so don't use it lightly.
All bytes in a multi-byte UTF-8 character will have the high bit set, so you can test if you need to do something special with this character like this (the UTF8_IS_INVARIANT() is a macro that tests whether the byte can be encoded as a single byte even in UTF-8):
U8 *utf;
UV uv; /* Note: a UV, not a U8, not a char */
if (!UTF8_IS_INVARIANT(*utf))
/* Must treat this as UTF-8 */
uv = utf8_to_uv(utf);
else
/* OK to treat this character as a byte */
uv = *utf;
You can also see in that example that we use "utf8_to_uv" to get the value of the character; the inverse function "uv_to_utf8" is available for putting a UV into UTF-8:
if (!UTF8_IS_INVARIANT(uv))
/* Must treat this as UTF8 */
utf8 = uv_to_utf8(utf8, uv);
else
/* OK to treat this character as a byte */
*utf8++ = uv;
You must convert characters to UVs using the above functions if you're ever in a situation where you have to match UTF-8 and non-UTF-8 characters. You may not skip over UTF-8 characters in this case. If you do this, you'll lose the ability to match hi-bit non-UTF-8 characters; for instance, if your UTF-8 string contains "v196.172", and you skip that character, you can never match a "chr(200)" in a non-UTF-8 string. So don't do that!
SvUTF8(sv)
SvUTF8_on(sv)
SvUTF8_off(sv)
This flag has an important effect on Perl's treatment of the string: if Unicode data is not properly distinguished, regular expressions, "length", "substr" and other string handling operations will have undesirable results.
The problem comes when you have, for instance, a string that isn't flagged is UTF-8, and contains a byte sequence that could be UTF-8 - especially when combining non-UTF-8 and UTF-8 strings.
Never forget that the "SVf_UTF8" flag is separate to the PV value; you need be sure you don't accidentally knock it off while you're manipulating SVs. More specifically, you cannot expect to do this:
SV *sv;
SV *nsv;
STRLEN len;
char *p;
p = SvPV(sv, len);
frobnicate(p);
nsv = newSVpvn(p, len);
The "char*" string does not tell you the whole story, and you can't copy or reconstruct an SV just by copying the string value. Check if the old SV has the UTF-8 flag set, and act accordingly:
p = SvPV(sv, len);
frobnicate(p);
nsv = newSVpvn(p, len);
if (SvUTF8(sv))
SvUTF8_on(nsv);
In fact, your "frobnicate" function should be made aware of whether or not it's dealing with UTF-8 data, so that it can handle the string appropriately.
Since just passing an SV to an XS function and copying the data of the SV is not enough to copy the UTF-8 flags, even less right is just passing a "char *" to an XS function.
sv_utf8_upgrade(sv);
However, you must not do this, for example:
if (!SvUTF8(left))
sv_utf8_upgrade(left);
If you do this in a binary operator, you will actually change one of the strings that came into the operator, and, while it shouldn't be noticeable by the end user, it can cause problems.
Instead, "bytes_to_utf8" will give you a UTF-8-encoded copy of its string argument. This is useful for having the data available for comparisons and so on, without harming the original SV. There's also "utf8_to_bytes" to go the other way, but naturally, this will fail if the string contains any characters above 255 that can't be represented in a single byte.
This feature is implemented as a new op type, "OP_CUSTOM". The Perl core does not ``know'' anything special about this op type, and so it will not be involved in any optimizations. This also means that you can define your custom ops to be any op structure - unary, binary, list and so on - you like.
It's important to know what custom operators won't do for you. They won't let you add new syntax to Perl, directly. They won't even let you add new keywords, directly. In fact, they won't change the way Perl compiles a program at all. You have to do those changes yourself, after Perl has compiled the program. You do this either by manipulating the op tree using a "CHECK" block and the "B::Generate" module, or by adding a custom peephole optimizer with the "optimize" module.
When you do this, you replace ordinary Perl ops with custom ops by creating ops with the type "OP_CUSTOM" and the "pp_addr" of your own PP function. This should be defined in XS code, and should look like the PP ops in "pp_*.c". You are responsible for ensuring that your op takes the appropriate number of values from the stack, and you are responsible for adding stack marks if necessary.
You should also ``register'' your op with the Perl interpreter so that it can produce sensible error and warning messages. Since it is possible to have multiple custom ops within the one ``logical'' op type "OP_CUSTOM", Perl uses the value of "o->op_ppaddr" as a key into the "PL_custom_op_descs" and "PL_custom_op_names" hashes. This means you need to enter a name and description for your op at the appropriate place in the "PL_custom_op_names" and "PL_custom_op_descs" hashes.
Forthcoming versions of "B::Generate" (version 1.0 and above) should directly support the creation of custom ops by name.
With lots of help and suggestions from Dean Roehrich, Malcolm Beattie, Andreas Koenig, Paul Hudson, Ilya Zakharevich, Paul Marquess, Neil Bowers, Matthew Green, Tim Bunce, Spider Boardman, Ulrich Pfeifer, Stephen McCamant, and Gurusamy Sarathy.
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